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<title>Shell (projectile)</title>

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<span id="openzim-page-title" class="mw-page-title-main"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Shell (projectile)</span></span>

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</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">This article is about the artillery projectile. For the small arms cartridge, see <a href="Shotgun_shell" class="mw-redirect" title="Shotgun shell">shotgun shell</a>.</div>

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<p>A <b>shell</b>, in a modern <a href="Military" title="Military">military</a> context, is a <a href="Projectile" title="Projectile">projectile</a> whose payload contains an <a href="Explosive" title="Explosive">explosive</a>, <a href="Incendiary_device" title="Incendiary device">incendiary</a>, or other <a href="Chemical" class="mw-redirect" title="Chemical">chemical</a> filling. Originally it was called a <b>bombshell</b>, but "shell" has come to be unambiguous in a military context. A shell can hold a <a href="Tracer_ammunition" title="Tracer ammunition">tracer</a>.

</p><p>All explosive- and incendiary-filled projectiles, particularly for <a href="Mortar_(weapon)" title="Mortar (weapon)">mortars</a>, were originally called <i>grenades</i>, derived from the <a href="French_language" title="French language">French</a> word for <a href="Pomegranate" title="Pomegranate">pomegranate</a>, so called because of the similarity of shape and that the multi-seeded fruit resembles the powder-filled, fragmentizing bomb. Words cognate with <i>grenade</i> are still used for an <a href="Artillery" title="Artillery">artillery</a> or mortar projectile in some European languages.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>Shells are usually large-caliber projectiles fired by artillery, <a href="Armored_fighting_vehicle" class="mw-redirect" title="Armored fighting vehicle">armoured fighting vehicles</a> (e.g. <a href="Tank" title="Tank">tanks</a>, <a href="Assault_gun" title="Assault gun">assault guns</a>, and <a href="Mortar_carrier" title="Mortar carrier">mortar carriers</a>), <a href="Warship" title="Warship">warships</a>, and <a href="Autocannon" title="Autocannon">autocannons</a>. The shape is usually a <a href="Cylinder_(geometry)" class="mw-redirect" title="Cylinder (geometry)">cylinder</a> topped by an <a href="Ogive" title="Ogive">ogive</a>-tipped <a href="Nose_cone" title="Nose cone">nose cone</a> for good <a href="Aerodynamic" class="mw-redirect" title="Aerodynamic">aerodynamic</a> <a href="External_ballistics" title="External ballistics">performance</a>, and possibly with a tapered <a href="External_ballistics#General_trends_in_drag_or_ballistic_coefficient" title="External ballistics">boat tail</a>; but some specialized types differ widely.

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<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Background">Background</h2></div>

<p>Gunpowder is a <a href="Low_explosive" class="mw-redirect" title="Low explosive">low explosive</a>, meaning it will not create a concussive, <a href="Brisance" title="Brisance">brisant</a> explosion unless it is contained, as in a modern-day <a href="Pipe_bomb" title="Pipe bomb">pipe bomb</a> or <a href="Pressure_cooker_bomb" title="Pressure cooker bomb">pressure cooker bomb</a>. Early <a href="Grenades" class="mw-redirect" title="Grenades">grenades</a> were hollow cast-iron balls filled with gunpowder, and "shells" were similar devices designed to be shot from artillery in place of solid cannonballs ("shot"). <a href="Metonymy" title="Metonymy">Metonymically</a>, the term "shell", from the casing, came to mean the entire <a href="Munition" class="mw-redirect" title="Munition">munition</a>.

</p><p>In a gunpowder-based shell, the casing was intrinsic to generating the explosion, and thus had to be strong and thick. Its fragments could do considerable damage, but each shell broke into only a few large pieces. Further developments led to shells which would fragment into smaller pieces. The advent of <a href="High_explosives" class="mw-redirect" title="High explosives">high explosives</a> such as <a href="TNT" title="TNT">TNT</a> removed the need for a pressure-holding casing, so the casing of later shells only needed to contain the munition, and, if desired, to produce shrapnel. The term "shell," however, was sufficiently established that it remained as the term for such munitions.

</p><p>Hollow shells filled with gunpowder needed a fuse that was either impact triggered (<a href="Artillery_fuze#Percussion_fuzes" title="Artillery fuze">percussion</a>) or time delayed.

Percussion fuses with a spherical projectile presented a challenge because there was no way of ensuring that the impact mechanism contacted the target. Therefore, ball shells needed a time fuse that was ignited before or during firing and burned until the shell reached its target.

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<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Early_shells">Early shells</h2></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="History_of_gunpowder" title="History of gunpowder">History of gunpowder</a></div>

<p>Cast iron shells packed with gunpowder have been used in warfare since at least early 13th century China. Hollow, gunpowder-packed shells made of <a href="Cast_iron" title="Cast iron">cast iron</a> used during the Song dynasty (960-1279) are described in the early <a href="Ming_Dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Ming Dynasty">Ming Dynasty</a> <a href="China" title="China">Chinese</a> military manual <i><a href="Huolongjing" title="Huolongjing">Huolongjing</a></i>, written in the mid 14th century.<sup id="cite_ref-needham_volume_5_part_7_24_25_264_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-needham_volume_5_part_7_24_25_264-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <i>History of Jin</i> 《金史》 (compiled by 1345) states that in 1232, as the Mongol general <a href="Subutai" title="Subutai">Subutai</a> (1176–1248) descended on the Jin stronghold of <a href="Kaifeng" title="Kaifeng">Kaifeng</a>, the defenders had a "<a href="Thunder_crash_bomb" title="Thunder crash bomb">thunder crash bomb</a>" which "consisted of gunpowder put into an iron container ... then when the fuse was lit (and the projectile shot off) there was a great explosion the noise whereof was like thunder, audible for more than thirty miles, and the vegetation was scorched and blasted by the heat over an area of more than <a href="Chinese_units_of_measurement#Area" title="Chinese units of measurement">half a <i>mou</i></a>. When hit, even <a href="Chinese_armour" title="Chinese armour">iron armour</a> was quite pierced through."<sup id="cite_ref-needham_volume_5_part_7_24_25_264_2-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-needham_volume_5_part_7_24_25_264-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Archeological examples of these shells from the 13th century Mongol invasions of Japan have been recovered from a shipwreck.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>Shells were used in combat by the <a href="Republic_of_Venice" title="Republic of Venice">Republic of Venice</a> at Jadra in 1376. Shells with fuses were used at the 1421 siege of St Boniface in <a href="Corsica" title="Corsica">Corsica</a>. These were two hollowed hemispheres of stone or bronze held together by an iron hoop.<sup id="cite_ref-Hogg_pg_164_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hogg_pg_164-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> At least since the 16th century grenades made of ceramics or glass were in use in Central Europe. A hoard of several hundred ceramic grenades dated to the 17th century was discovered during building works in front of a bastion of the Bavarian city of <a href="Ingolstadt" title="Ingolstadt">Ingolstadt</a>, <a href="Germany" title="Germany">Germany</a>. Many of the grenades contained their original black-powder loads and igniters. Most probably the grenades were intentionally dumped in the moat of the bastion before the year 1723.

<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> An early problem was that there was no means of <a href="Accuracy_and_precision" title="Accuracy and precision">precisely</a> measuring the time to detonation – reliable fuses did not yet exist, and the burning time of the powder fuse was subject to considerable trial and error. Early powder-burning fuses had to be loaded fuse down to be ignited by firing or a portfire or <a href="Slow_match" title="Slow match">slow match</a> put down the barrel to light the fuse. Other shells were wrapped in <a href="Bitumen" title="Bitumen">bitumen</a> cloth, which would ignite during the firing and in turn ignite a powder fuse. Nevertheless, shells came into regular use in the 16th century. A 1543 English mortar shell was filled with "wildfire."

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<p>By the 18th century, it was known that if loaded toward the muzzle instead,

the fuse could be lit by the flash through the <a href="British_ordnance_terms" class="mw-redirect" title="British ordnance terms">windage</a> between the shell and the barrel. At about this time, shells began to be employed for <a href="Direct_fire" title="Direct fire">horizontal fire</a> from <a href="Howitzer" title="Howitzer">howitzers</a> with a small <a href="Propellant" title="Propellant">propelling</a> charge and, in 1779, experiments demonstrated that they could be used from guns with heavier charges.

</p><p>The use of exploding shells from field artillery became relatively commonplace from early in the 19th century. Until the mid 19th century, shells remained as simple exploding spheres that used gunpowder, set off by a slow burning fuse. They were usually made of <a href="Cast_iron" title="Cast iron">cast iron</a>, but <a href="Bronze" title="Bronze">bronze</a>, <a href="Lead" title="Lead">lead</a>, <a href="Brass" title="Brass">brass</a> and even <a href="Glass" title="Glass">glass</a> shell casings were experimented with.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The word <i><a href="Bomb" title="Bomb">bomb</a></i> encompassed them at the time, as heard in the lyrics of <i><a href="The_Star-Spangled_Banner" title="The Star-Spangled Banner">The Star-Spangled Banner</a></i> ("the bombs bursting in air"), although today that sense of <i>bomb</i> is obsolete. Typically, the thickness of the metal body was about a sixth of their diameter, and they were about two-thirds the weight of solid shot of the same caliber.

</p><p>To ensure that shells were loaded with their fuses toward the muzzle, they were attached to wooden bottoms called <i><a href="Sabot_(firearms)" title="Sabot (firearms)">sabots</a></i>. In 1819, a committee of British artillery officers recognized that they were essential stores and in 1830 Britain standardized sabot thickness as a half-inch.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The sabot was also intended to reduce jamming during loading. Despite the use of exploding shells, the use of smoothbore cannons firing spherical projectiles of shot remained the dominant artillery method until the 1850s.

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<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Modern_shell">Modern shell</h2></div>

<p>The mid–19th century saw a revolution in artillery, with the introduction of the first practical <a href="Rifled_breech_loader" title="Rifled breech loader">rifled breech loading</a> weapons. The new methods resulted in the reshaping of the spherical shell into its modern recognizable cylindro-conoidal form. This shape greatly improved the in-flight stability of the projectile and meant that the primitive time fuzes could be replaced with the percussion fuze situated in the nose of the shell. The new shape also meant that further, armour-piercing designs could be used.

</p><p>During the 20th century, shells became increasingly streamlined. In World War I, ogives were typically two circular radius head (crh) – the curve was a segment of a circle having a radius of twice the shell caliber. After that war, ogive shapes became more complex and elongated. From the 1960s, higher quality steels were introduced by some countries for their HE shells, this enabled thinner shell walls with less weight of metal and hence a greater weight of explosive. Ogives were further elongated to improve their ballistic performance.

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<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Rifled_breech_loaders">Rifled breech loaders</h3></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="Rifled_breech_loader" title="Rifled breech loader">Rifled breech loader</a></div>

<p>Advances in metallurgy in the industrial era allowed for the construction of <a href="Rifled_breech_loader" title="Rifled breech loader">rifled breech-loading guns</a> that could fire at a much greater <a href="Muzzle_velocity" title="Muzzle velocity">muzzle velocity</a>. After the British artillery was shown up in the <a href="Crimean_War" title="Crimean War">Crimean War</a> as having barely changed since the <a href="Napoleonic_Wars" title="Napoleonic Wars">Napoleonic Wars</a>, the industrialist <a href="William_Armstrong%2C_1st_Baron_Armstrong" title="William Armstrong, 1st Baron Armstrong">William Armstrong</a> was awarded a contract by the government to design a new piece of artillery. Production started in 1855 at the <a href="Elswick_Ordnance_Company" title="Elswick Ordnance Company">Elswick Ordnance Company</a> and the <a href="Royal_Arsenal" title="Royal Arsenal">Royal Arsenal</a> at <a href="Woolwich" title="Woolwich">Woolwich</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>The piece was <a href="Rifling" title="Rifling">rifled</a>, which allowed for a much more accurate and powerful action. Although rifling had been tried on small arms since the 15th century, the necessary machinery to accurately rifle artillery only became available in the mid-19th century. <a href="Martin_von_Wahrendorff" title="Martin von Wahrendorff">Martin von Wahrendorff</a> and <a href="Joseph_Whitworth" title="Joseph Whitworth">Joseph Whitworth</a> independently produced rifled cannons in the 1840s, but it was Armstrong's gun that was first to see widespread use during the Crimean War.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="Cast_iron" title="Cast iron">cast iron</a> shell of the Armstrong gun was similar in shape to a <a href="Mini%C3%A9_ball" title="Minié ball">Minié ball</a> and had a thin lead coating which made it fractionally larger than the gun's bore and which engaged with the gun's <a href="Rifling" title="Rifling">rifling</a> grooves to impart spin to the shell. This spin, together with the elimination of <a href="British_ordnance_terms" class="mw-redirect" title="British ordnance terms">windage</a> as a result of the tight fit, enabled the gun to achieve greater range and accuracy than existing smooth-bore muzzle-loaders with a smaller powder charge.

</p><p>The gun was also a breech-loader. Although attempts at breech-loading mechanisms had been made since medieval times, the essential engineering problem was that the mechanism could not withstand the explosive charge. It was only with the advances in <a href="Metallurgy" title="Metallurgy">metallurgy</a> and <a href="Precision_engineering" title="Precision engineering">precision engineering</a> capabilities during the <a href="Industrial_Revolution" title="Industrial Revolution">Industrial Revolution</a> that Armstrong was able to construct a viable solution. Another innovative feature was what Armstrong called its "grip", which was essentially a <a href="Squeeze_bore" title="Squeeze bore">squeeze bore</a>; the 6 inches of the bore at the muzzle end was of slightly smaller diameter, which centered the shell before it left the barrel and at the same time slightly <a href="Swage" class="mw-redirect" title="Swage">swaged</a> down its lead coating, reducing its diameter and slightly improving its ballistic qualities.

</p><p>Rifled guns were also developed elsewhere – by Major Giovanni Cavalli and Baron <a href="Martin_von_Wahrendorff" title="Martin von Wahrendorff">Martin von Wahrendorff</a> in Sweden, <a href="Krupp" title="Krupp">Krupp</a> in Germany and the <a href="Wiard_rifle" title="Wiard rifle">Wiard gun</a> in the United States.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, rifled barrels required some means of engaging the shell with the rifling. Lead coated shells were used with the <a href="Armstrong_gun" title="Armstrong gun">Armstrong gun</a>, but were not satisfactory so studded projectiles were adopted. However, these did not seal the gap between shell and barrel. Wads at the shell base were also tried without success.

</p><p>In 1878, the British adopted a copper "<a href="Gas_check" title="Gas check">gas-check</a>" at the base of their studded projectiles and in 1879 tried a rotating gas check to replace the studs, leading to the 1881 automatic gas-check. This was soon followed by the Vavaseur copper <a href="Driving_band" title="Driving band">driving band</a> as part of the projectile. The driving band rotated the projectile, centered it in the bore and prevented gas escaping forwards. A driving band has to be soft but tough enough to prevent stripping by rotational and engraving stresses. <a href="Copper" title="Copper">Copper</a> is generally most suitable but <a href="Cupronickel" title="Cupronickel">cupronickel</a> or <a href="Gilding_metal" title="Gilding metal">gilding metal</a> were also used.<sup id="cite_ref-Hogg_pg_165_-_166_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hogg_pg_165_-_166-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

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<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Percussion_fuze">Percussion fuze</h3></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="Artillery_fuze" title="Artillery fuze">Artillery fuze</a></div>

<p>Although an early percussion fuze appeared in 1650 that used a flint to create sparks to ignite the powder, the shell had to fall in a particular way for this to work and this did not work with spherical projectiles. An additional problem was finding a suitably stable "percussion powder". Progress was not possible until the discovery of <a href="Mercury(II)_fulminate" title="Mercury(II) fulminate">mercury fulminate</a> in 1800, leading to priming mixtures for small arms patented by the Rev <a href="Alexander_John_Forsyth" title="Alexander John Forsyth">Alexander Forsyth</a>, and the copper percussion cap in 1818.

</p><p>The percussion fuze was adopted by Britain in 1842. Many designs were jointly examined by the army and navy, but were unsatisfactory, probably because of the safety and arming features. However, in 1846 the design by Quartermaster Freeburn of the Royal Artillery was adopted by the army. It was a wooden fuze about 6 inches long and used shear wire to hold blocks between the fuze magazine and a burning match. The match was ignited by propellant flash and the shear wire broke on impact. A British naval percussion fuze made of metal did not appear until 1861.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

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<div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Types_of_fuzes">Types of fuzes</h4></div>

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<ul><li><a href="Artillery_fuze#Percussion_fuzes" title="Artillery fuze">Percussion fuzes</a>

<ul><li><a href="Artillery_fuze#Direct_action_fuzes" title="Artillery fuze">Direct action fuzes</a></li>

<li><a href="Artillery_fuze#Graze_fuzes" title="Artillery fuze">Graze fuzes</a></li>

<li><a href="Artillery_fuze#Delay_fuzes" title="Artillery fuze">Delay fuzes</a></li>

<li><a href="Artillery_fuze#Base_fuzes" title="Artillery fuze">Base fuzes</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Artillery_fuze#Airburst_fuzes" title="Artillery fuze">Airburst fuzes</a>

<ul><li><a href="Artillery_fuze#Time_fuzes" title="Artillery fuze">Time fuzes</a></li>

<li><a href="Artillery_fuze#Proximity_fuzes" title="Artillery fuze">Proximity fuzes</a></li>

<li><a href="Artillery_fuze#Distance_measuring_fuzes" title="Artillery fuze">Distance measuring fuzes</a></li>

<li><a href="Artillery_fuze#Electronic_time_fuzes" title="Artillery fuze">Electronic time fuzes</a></li></ul></li></ul>

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<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Smokeless_powders">Smokeless powders</h3></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="Smokeless_powder" title="Smokeless powder">Smokeless powder</a></div>

<p><a href="Gunpowder" title="Gunpowder">Gunpowder</a> was used as the only form of explosive up until the end of the 19th century. Guns using black powder <a href="Ammunition" title="Ammunition">ammunition</a> would have their view obscured by a huge cloud of smoke and concealed shooters were given away by a cloud of smoke over the firing position. <a href="Guncotton" class="mw-redirect" title="Guncotton">Guncotton</a>, a nitrocellulose-based material, was discovered by <a href="Swiss_people" title="Swiss people">Swiss</a> chemist <a href="Christian_Friedrich_Sch%C3%B6nbein" title="Christian Friedrich Schönbein">Christian Friedrich Schönbein</a> in 1846. He promoted its use as a blasting explosive<sup id="cite_ref-Handloading28_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Handloading28-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and sold manufacturing rights to the <a href="Austrian_Empire" title="Austrian Empire">Austrian Empire</a>. Guncotton was more powerful than gunpowder, but at the same time was somewhat more unstable. John Taylor obtained an English patent for guncotton; and John Hall & Sons began <a href="Faversham_explosives_industry" title="Faversham explosives industry">manufacture in Faversham</a>. British interest waned after an explosion destroyed the Faversham factory in 1847. Austrian Baron <a href="Wilhelm_Lenk_von_Wolfsberg" title="Wilhelm Lenk von Wolfsberg">Wilhelm Lenk von Wolfsberg</a> built two guncotton plants producing artillery propellant, but it was dangerous under field conditions, and guns that could fire thousands of rounds using gunpowder would reach their service life after only a few hundred shots with the more powerful guncotton.

</p><p>Small arms could not withstand the pressures generated by guncotton. After one of the Austrian factories blew up in 1862, <a href="Stowmarket_Guncotton_Company" title="Stowmarket Guncotton Company">Thomas Prentice & Company</a> began manufacturing guncotton in <a href="Stowmarket" title="Stowmarket">Stowmarket</a> in 1863; and British <a href="War_Office" title="War Office">War Office</a> chemist Sir <a href="Frederick_Abel" title="Frederick Abel">Frederick Abel</a> began thorough research at <a href="Waltham_Abbey_Royal_Gunpowder_Mills" title="Waltham Abbey Royal Gunpowder Mills">Waltham Abbey Royal Gunpowder Mills</a> leading to a manufacturing process that eliminated the impurities in nitrocellulose making it safer to produce and a stable product safer to handle. Abel patented this process in 1865, when the second Austrian guncotton factory exploded. After the Stowmarket factory exploded in 1871, Waltham Abbey began production of guncotton for torpedo and mine warheads.<sup id="cite_ref-sharpe141_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-sharpe141-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<p>In 1884, <a href="Paul_Vieille" class="mw-redirect" title="Paul Vieille">Paul Vieille</a> invented a smokeless powder called <a href="Poudre_B" title="Poudre B">Poudre B</a> (short for <i>poudre blanche</i>—white powder, as distinguished from <a href="Gunpowder" title="Gunpowder">black powder</a>)<sup id="cite_ref-Chemistry289_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Chemistry289-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> made from 68.2% insoluble <a href="Nitrocellulose" title="Nitrocellulose">nitrocellulose</a>, 29.8% soluble nitrocellulose gelatinized with <a href="Diethyl_ether" title="Diethyl ether">ether</a> and 2% paraffin. This was adopted for the Lebel rifle.<sup id="cite_ref-Artillery139_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Artillery139-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Vieille's powder revolutionized the effectiveness of small guns, because it gave off almost no smoke and was three times more powerful than black powder. Higher <a href="Muzzle_velocity" title="Muzzle velocity">muzzle velocity</a> meant a flatter <a href="Trajectory" title="Trajectory">trajectory</a> and less wind drift and bullet drop, making 1000 meter shots practicable. Other European countries swiftly followed and started using their own versions of Poudre B, the first being <a href="Germany" title="Germany">Germany</a> and <a href="Austria" title="Austria">Austria</a> which introduced new weapons in 1888. Subsequently, Poudre B was modified several times with various compounds being added and removed. <a href="Krupp" title="Krupp">Krupp</a> began adding <a href="Diphenylamine" title="Diphenylamine">diphenylamine</a> as a stabilizer in 1888.<sup id="cite_ref-sharpe141_15-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-sharpe141-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>Britain conducted trials on all the various types of propellant brought to their attention, but were dissatisfied with them all and sought something superior to all existing types. In 1889, Sir <a href="Frederick_Abel" title="Frederick Abel">Frederick Abel</a>, <a href="James_Dewar" title="James Dewar">James Dewar</a> and W. Kellner patented (No. 5614 and No. 11,664 in the names of Abel and Dewar) a new formulation that was manufactured at the Royal Gunpowder Factory at Waltham Abbey. It entered British service in 1891 as <a href="Cordite" title="Cordite">Cordite</a> Mark 1. Its main composition was 58% nitro-glycerine, 37% guncotton and 3% mineral jelly. A modified version, Cordite MD, entered service in 1901, this increased guncotton to 65% and reduced nitro-glycerine to 30%, this change reduced the combustion temperature and hence erosion and barrel wear. Cordite could be made to burn more slowly which reduced maximum pressure in the chamber (hence lighter breeches, etc.), but longer high pressure – significant improvements over gunpowder. Cordite could be made in any desired shape or size.<sup id="cite_ref-Artillery141_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Artillery141-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The creation of cordite led to a lengthy court battle between Nobel, Maxim, and another inventor over alleged British <a href="Patent" title="Patent">patent</a> infringement.

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Other_shell_types">Other shell types</h2></div>

<p>A variety of fillings have been used in shells throughout history. An incendiary shell was invented by Valturio in 1460. The <a href="Carcass_(projectile)" title="Carcass (projectile)">carcass shell</a> was first used by the French under <a href="Louis_XIV_of_France" class="mw-redirect" title="Louis XIV of France">Louis XIV</a> in 1672.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Initially in the shape of an <a href="Rectangle" title="Rectangle">oblong</a> in an iron frame (with poor ballistic properties) it evolved into a spherical shell. Their use continued well into the 19th century.

</p><p>A modern version of the incendiary shell was developed in 1857 by the British and was known as <i>Martin's shell</i> after its inventor. The shell was filled with molten iron and was intended to break up on impact with an enemy ship, splashing molten iron on the target. It was used by the Royal Navy between 1860 and 1869, replacing <a href="Heated_shot" title="Heated shot">heated shot</a> as an anti-ship, incendiary projectile.<sup id="cite_ref-Jobson2016_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Jobson2016-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>Two patterns of incendiary shell were used by the British in World War I, one designed for use against Zeppelins.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>Similar to incendiary shells were star shells, designed for illumination rather than arson. Sometimes called lightballs they were in use from the 17th century onwards. The British adopted parachute lightballs in 1866 for 10-, 8- and 5<style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1154941027">

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</style><span class="frac"><span class="num">1</span>⁄<span class="den">2</span></span>-inch calibers. The 10-inch was not officially declared obsolete until 1920.<sup id="cite_ref-Hogg_pg_174_-_176_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hogg_pg_174_-_176-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>Smoke balls also date back to the 17th century, British ones contained a mix of saltpetre, coal, pitch, tar, resin, sawdust, crude antimony and sulphur. They produced a "noisome smoke in abundance that is impossible to bear". In 19th-century British service, they were made of concentric paper with a thickness about 1/15th of the total diameter and filled with powder, saltpeter, pitch, coal and tallow. They were used to 'suffocate or expel the enemy in casemates, mines or between decks; for concealing operations; and as signals.<sup id="cite_ref-Hogg_pg_174_-_176_22-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hogg_pg_174_-_176-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>During the <a href="First_World_War" class="mw-redirect" title="First World War">First World War</a>, <a href="Shrapnel_shell" title="Shrapnel shell">shrapnel shells</a> and explosive shells inflicted terrible casualties on infantry, accounting for nearly 70% of all war casualties and leading to the adoption of steel <a href="Combat_helmet" title="Combat helmet">combat helmets</a> on both sides. Frequent problems with shells led to many military disasters with <a href="Dud" title="Dud">dud</a> shells, most notably during the 1916 <a href="Battle_of_the_Somme" title="Battle of the Somme">Battle of the Somme</a>. Shells filled with poison <a href="Gas_(chemical_warfare)" class="mw-redirect" title="Gas (chemical warfare)">gas</a> were used from 1917 onwards.

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Propulsion">Propulsion</h2></div>

<p>Artillery shells are differentiated by how the shell is loaded and propelled, and the type of breech mechanism.

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Fixed_ammunition">Fixed ammunition</h3></div>

<p>Fixed ammunition has three main components: the <a href="Fuze" title="Fuze">fuzed</a> projectile, the <a href="Cartridge_(firearms)" title="Cartridge (firearms)">casing</a> to hold the propellants and <a href="Detonator" title="Detonator">primer</a>, and the single propellant charge. Everything is included in a ready-to-use package and in British ordnance terms is called <a href="Glossary_of_British_ordnance_terms#Fixed_QF" title="Glossary of British ordnance terms">fixed quick firing</a>. Often guns which use fixed ammunition use <a href="Rifled_breech_loader#The_sliding_block" title="Rifled breech loader">sliding-block</a> or sliding-wedge breeches and the case provides <a href="Obturation" title="Obturation">obturation</a> which seals the <a href="Breech-loading_weapon" class="mw-redirect" title="Breech-loading weapon">breech</a> of the gun and prevents propellant gasses from escaping. Sliding block breeches can be horizontal or vertical. Advantages of fixed ammunition are simplicity, safety, moisture resistance and speed of loading. Disadvantages are eventually a fixed round becomes too long or too heavy to load by a gun crew. Another issue is the inability to vary propellant charges to achieve different velocities and ranges. Lastly, there is the issue of resource usage since a fixed round uses a case, which can be an issue in a prolonged war if there are metal shortages.<sup id="cite_ref-:Hogg_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:Hogg-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Separate_loading_cased_charge">Separate loading cased charge</h3></div>

<p>Separate loading cased charge ammunition has three main components: the fuzed projectile, the casing to hold the propellants and primer, and the bagged propellant charges. The components are usually separated into two or more parts. In British ordnance terms, this type of ammunition is called <a href="Glossary_of_British_ordnance_terms#Separate_QF" title="Glossary of British ordnance terms">separate quick firing</a>. Often guns which use separate loading cased charge ammunition use sliding-block or sliding-wedge breeches and during <a href="World_War_I" title="World War I">World War I</a> and <a href="World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a> Germany predominantly used fixed or separate loading cased charges and sliding block breeches even for their largest guns. A variant of separate loading cased charge ammunition is <b>semi-fixed</b> ammunition. With semi-fixed ammunition the round comes as a complete package but the projectile and its case can be separated. The case holds a set number of bagged charges and the gun crew can add or subtract propellant to change range and velocity. The round is then reassembled, loaded, and fired. Advantages include easier handling for larger caliber rounds, while range and velocity can easily be varied by increasing or decreasing the number of propellant charges. Disadvantages include more complexity, slower loading, less safety, less moisture resistance, and the metal cases can still be a material resource issue.<sup id="cite_ref-:Hogg_23-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:Hogg-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Separate_loading_bagged_charge">Separate loading bagged charge</h3></div>

<p>In separate loading bagged charge ammunition there are three main components: the fuzed projectile, the bagged charges and the primer. Like separate loading cased charge ammunition, the number of propellant charges can be varied. However, this style of ammunition does not use a cartridge case and it achieves obturation through a <a href="Interrupted_screw" title="Interrupted screw">screw breech</a> instead of a sliding block. Sometimes when reading about artillery the term separate loading ammunition will be used without clarification of whether a cartridge case is used or not, in which case it refers to the type of breech used. Heavy artillery pieces and <a href="Naval_artillery" title="Naval artillery">naval artillery</a> tend to use bagged charges and projectiles because the weight and size of the projectiles and propelling charges can be more than a gun crew can manage. Advantages include easier handling for large rounds, decreased metal usage, while range and velocity can be varied by using more or fewer propellant charges. Disadvantages include more complexity, slower loading, less safety and less moisture resistance.<sup id="cite_ref-:Hogg_23-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:Hogg-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Range-enhancing_technologies">Range-enhancing technologies </h3></div>

<p>Extended-range shells are sometimes used. Two primary types exist: <a href="Rocket-assisted_projectile" title="Rocket-assisted projectile">rocket-assisted projectiles</a> (RAP), which generate additional thrust via a rocket motor built into the base, and <a href="Base_bleed" title="Base bleed">base bleed</a> (BB), which reduce base drag by expelling gas into the low-pressure area behind the shell. These shell designs usually have reduced high-explosive filling to remain within the permitted mass for the projectile, and hence less lethality.

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Sizes">Sizes</h2></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="British_standard_ordnance_weights_and_measurements" title="British standard ordnance weights and measurements">British standard ordnance weights and measurements</a> and <a href="List_of_British_ordnance_terms" class="mw-redirect" title="List of British ordnance terms">List of British ordnance terms</a></div>

<p>The <a href="Caliber" title="Caliber">caliber</a> of a shell is its <a href="Diameter" title="Diameter">diameter</a>. Depending on the historical period and national preferences, this may be specified in <a href="Millimeter" class="mw-redirect" title="Millimeter">millimeters</a>, <a href="Centimeter" class="mw-redirect" title="Centimeter">centimeters</a>, or <a href="Inch" title="Inch">inches</a>. The length of gun barrels for large <a href="Cartridge_(firearms)" title="Cartridge (firearms)">cartridges</a> and shells (naval) is frequently quoted in terms of the ratio of the barrel length to the bore size, also called <a href="Caliber_(artillery)" title="Caliber (artillery)">caliber</a>. For example, the <a href="16%22/50_caliber_Mark_7_gun" class="mw-redirect" title="16"/50 caliber Mark 7 gun">16"/50 caliber Mark 7 gun</a> is 50 calibers long, that is, 16"×50=800"=66.7 feet long. Some guns, mainly British, were specified by the weight of their shells (see below).

</p><p>Explosive rounds as small as <a href="Breda-SAFAT_machine_gun" title="Breda-SAFAT machine gun">12.7 x 82</a> mm and <a href="MG_131_machine_gun" title="MG 131 machine gun">13 x 64</a> mm have been used on aircraft and armoured vehicles, but their small explosive yields have led some nations to limit their explosive rounds to <a href="20mm" class="mw-redirect" title="20mm">20mm</a> (.78 in) or larger. International Law precludes the use of explosive ammunition for use against individual persons, but not against vehicles and aircraft. The largest shells ever fired during war were those from the German super-<a href="Railway_gun" title="Railway gun">railway guns</a>, <a href="Schwerer_Gustav" title="Schwerer Gustav">Gustav and Dora</a>, which were 800 mm (31.5 in) in caliber. Very large shells have been replaced by <a href="Rocket" title="Rocket">rockets</a>, <a href="Missiles" class="mw-redirect" title="Missiles">missiles</a>, and <a href="Bomb" title="Bomb">bombs</a>. Today shells exceeding <a href="155_mm" class="mw-redirect" title="155 mm">155 mm</a> (6.1 in) are much less commonly used, with the exception of certain dated legacy systems. The 203mm Soviet-era <a href="2S7_Pion" title="2S7 Pion">2S7 Pion</a> is a noteworthy example, seeing regular usage throughout the <a href="Russo-Ukrainian_War" title="Russo-Ukrainian War">Russo-Ukrainian War</a> by the armed forces of both countries. Ukraine was able to continue fielding these heavy howitzers thanks to 203mm shells donated by the US, formerly used by the now-retired <a href="M110_howitzer" title="M110 howitzer">M110 howitzer</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<p>Gun calibers have standardized around a few common sizes, especially in the larger range, mainly due to the uniformity required for efficient military logistics. Shells of 105 and 155 mm for artillery with 105 and 120 mm for tank guns are common in <a href="NATO" title="NATO">NATO</a> allied countries. Shells of 122, 130, and 152 mm for artillery with 100, 115, and 125 mm for tank guns, remain in common usage among the regions of Eastern Europe, Western Asia, Northern Africa, and Eastern Asia. Most common calibers have been in use for many decades, since it is <a href="Logistics" title="Logistics">logistically</a> complex to change the caliber of all guns and ammunition stores.

</p><p>The weight of shells increases by and large with caliber. A typical 155 mm (6.1 in) shell weighs about 50 kg (110 lbs), a common 203 mm (8 in) shell about 100 kg (220 lbs), a concrete demolition 203 mm (8 in) shell 146 kg (322 lbs), a 280 mm (11 in) battleship shell about 300 kg (661 lbs), and a 460 mm (18 in) battleship shell over 1,500 kg (3,307 lbs). The <a href="Schwerer_Gustav" title="Schwerer Gustav">Schwerer Gustav</a> <a href="Large-calibre_artillery" title="Large-calibre artillery">large-calibre gun</a> fired shells that weighed between 4,800 kg (10,582 lbs) and 7,100 kg (15,653 lbs).

</p><p>During the 19th century, the British adopted a particular form of designating artillery. Field guns were designated by nominal standard projectile weight, while howitzers were designated by barrel caliber. British guns and their ammunition were designated in <a href="Pound_(mass)" title="Pound (mass)">pounds</a>, e.g., as "two-pounder" shortened to "2-pr" or "2-pdr". Usually, this referred to the actual weight of the standard projectile (shot, shrapnel, or high explosive), but, confusingly, this was not always the case.

</p><p>Some were named after the weights of obsolete projectile types of the same caliber, or even obsolete types that were considered to have been functionally equivalent. Also, projectiles fired from the same gun, but of non-standard weight, took their name from the gun. Thus, conversion from "pounds" to an actual barrel diameter requires consulting a historical reference. A mixture of designations were in use for land artillery from the First World War (such as the <a href="BL_60-pounder_gun" title="BL 60-pounder gun">BL 60-pounder gun</a>, <a href="RML_2.5_inch_Mountain_Gun" class="mw-redirect" title="RML 2.5 inch Mountain Gun">RML 2.5 inch Mountain Gun</a>, 4 inch gun, 4.5 inch howitzer) through to the end of World War II (5.5 inch medium gun, <a href="Ordnance_QF_25-pounder" title="Ordnance QF 25-pounder">25-pounder gun-howitzer</a>, 17-pounder tank gun), but the majority of naval guns were by caliber. After the end of World War II, field guns were designated by caliber.

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Types">Types</h2></div>

<p>There are many different types of shells. The principal ones include:

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Armour-piercing_shells">Armour-piercing shells</h3></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="Armour-piercing_shell" class="mw-redirect" title="Armour-piercing shell">armour-piercing shell</a></div>

<p>With the introduction of the first <a href="Ironclad" class="mw-redirect" title="Ironclad">ironclads</a> in the 1850s and 1860s, it became clear that shells had to be designed to effectively pierce the ship armour. A series of British tests in 1863 demonstrated that the way forward lay with high-velocity lighter shells. The first <a href="Armor-piercing_shot_and_shell" class="mw-redirect" title="Armor-piercing shot and shell">pointed armour-piercing shell</a> was introduced by Major Palliser in 1863. Approved in 1867, <a href="Palliser_shot_and_shell" title="Palliser shot and shell">Palliser shot and shell</a> was an improvement over the ordinary elongated shot of the time. Palliser shot was made of <a href="Cast_iron" title="Cast iron">cast iron</a>, the head being chilled in casting to harden it, using composite molds with a metal, water cooled portion for the head.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>Britain also deployed Palliser shells in the 1870s–1880s. In the shell, the cavity was slightly larger than in the shot and was filled with 1.5% gunpowder instead of being empty, to provide a small explosive effect after penetrating armour plating. The shell was correspondingly slightly longer than the shot to compensate for the lighter cavity. The powder filling was ignited by the shock of impact and hence did not require a fuze.<sup id="cite_ref-ToA1887_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ToA1887-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, ship armour rapidly improved during the 1880s and 1890s, and it was realised that explosive shells with <a href="Steel" title="Steel">steel</a> had advantages including better fragmentation and resistance to the stresses of firing. These were cast and forged steel.<sup id="cite_ref-Hogg_pg_165_-_166_12-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hogg_pg_165_-_166-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>AP shells containing an explosive filling were initially distinguished from their non-HE counterparts by being called a "shell" as opposed to "shot". By the time of the Second World War, AP shells with a <a href="Bursting_charge" class="mw-redirect" title="Bursting charge">bursting charge</a> were sometimes distinguished by appending the suffix "HE". At the beginning of the war, APHE was common in <a href="Anti-tank" class="mw-redirect" title="Anti-tank">anti-tank</a> shells of 75 mm caliber and larger due to the similarity with the much larger naval armour piercing shells already in common use. As the war progressed, ordnance design evolved so that the bursting charges in APHE became ever smaller to non-existent, especially in smaller caliber shells, e.g. <a href="Panzergranate_39" title="Panzergranate 39">Panzergranate 39</a> with only 0.2% HE filling.

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Types_of_armour-piercing_ammunition">Types of armour-piercing ammunition</h4></div>

<ul><li>Solid shell ("shot") - a solid penetrator that uses only initial impact energy to penetrate armour

<ul><li><a href="Armour-piercing_shell" class="mw-redirect" title="Armour-piercing shell">Armour-piercing</a> (AP)</li>

<li>Armour-piercing ballistic capped (APBC) - a shot with a cover to improve aerodynamics</li>

<li><a href="Armour-piercing_capped" class="mw-redirect" title="Armour-piercing capped">Armour-piercing capped</a> (APC)</li>

<li><a href="Armour-piercing%2C_capped%2C_ballistic_capped_shell" title="Armour-piercing, capped, ballistic capped shell">Armour-piercing capped ballistic capped</a> (APCBC)</li>

<li><a href="Armour-piercing_ammunition#APCR/HVAP" title="Armour-piercing ammunition">Armour-piercing composite rigid</a> (APCR), also known as High-Velocity Armour-Piercing (HVAP)</li>

<li><a href="Armour-piercing_ammunition#APCNR_/_APSV" title="Armour-piercing ammunition">Armour-piercing composite non-rigid</a> (APCNR), also known as Armour-Piercing Super-Velocity (APSV) - <a href="Squeeze_bore" title="Squeeze bore">fired from a tapering barrel</a></li>

<li><a href="Armour-piercing_discarding_sabot" title="Armour-piercing discarding sabot">Armour-piercing discarding sabot</a> (APDS)</li>

<li><a href="Armour-piercing_fin-stabilized_discarding_sabot" title="Armour-piercing fin-stabilized discarding sabot">Armour-piercing fin-stabilized discarding sabot</a> (APFSDS)</li></ul></li>

<li>Hard shell with explosives – a mostly solid shell with an explosive element that detonates, after the shell has penetrated the armour using its impact velocity

<ul><li><a href="Armour-piercing_ammunition#APHE_/_SAPHE" title="Armour-piercing ammunition">Armour-piercing high-explosive</a> (APHE)</li>

<li>Armour-piercing high-explosive tracer (APHE-T) - an APHE with tracer in base</li>

<li>Semi-armour-piercing (<a href="Glossary_of_British_ordnance_terms#S.A.P." title="Glossary of British ordnance terms">SAP</a>)</li>

<li>Semi-armour-piercing high-explosive (SAPHE)</li>

<li><a href="Semi-armor_piercing_high_explosive_incendiary" class="mw-redirect" title="Semi-armor piercing high explosive incendiary">Semi-armour-piercing high-explosive incendiary</a> (SAPHEI)</li>

<li>Semi-armour-piercing high-explosive incendiary tracer (SAPHEI-T)</li></ul></li>

<li>Indirect-penetration shell – a shell with a mechanism that is triggered upon impact to cause damage behind armour

<ul><li><a href="High-explosive_anti-tank_warhead" class="mw-redirect" title="High-explosive anti-tank warhead">High-explosive anti-tank</a> (HEAT)</li>

<li><a href="High-explosive_squash_head" title="High-explosive squash head">High-explosive squash head</a> (HESH), also known as High-explosive plastic/plasticized (HEP)</li></ul></li></ul>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="High-explosive_shells">High-explosive shells</h3></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">"High-explosive shell" redirects here. For the material, see <a href="High_explosives" class="mw-redirect" title="High explosives">high explosives</a>.</div>

<p>Although smokeless powders were used as a propellant, they could not be used as the substance for the explosive warhead, because shock sensitivity sometimes caused <a href="Detonation" title="Detonation">detonation</a> in the artillery barrel at the time of firing. <a href="Picric_acid" title="Picric acid">Picric acid</a> was the first high-explosive nitrated <a href="Organic_compound" title="Organic compound">organic compound</a> widely considered suitable to withstand the shock of firing in conventional <a href="Artillery" title="Artillery">artillery</a>. In 1885, based on research of Hermann Sprengel, French chemist <a href="Eug%C3%A8ne_Turpin" title="Eugène Turpin">Eugène Turpin</a> patented the use of pressed and cast picric acid in <a href="Rock_blasting" class="mw-redirect" title="Rock blasting">blasting</a> charges and <a href="Artillery_shell" class="mw-redirect" title="Artillery shell">artillery shells</a>. In 1887, the French government adopted a mixture of picric acid and guncotton under the name <i>Melinite</i>. In 1888, Britain started manufacturing a very similar mixture in <a href="Lydd" title="Lydd">Lydd</a>, Kent, under the name <i>Lyddite</i>.

</p><p>Japan followed with an "improved" formula known as <i><a href="Shimose_powder" title="Shimose powder">shimose powder</a></i>. In 1889, a similar material, a mixture of ammonium cresylate with trinitrocresol, or an ammonium salt of trinitrocresol, started to be manufactured under the name <i><a href="Ecrasite" title="Ecrasite">ecrasite</a></i> in <a href="Austria-Hungary" title="Austria-Hungary">Austria-Hungary</a>. By 1894, Russia was manufacturing artillery shells filled with picric acid. Ammonium picrate (known as <i>Dunnite</i> or <a href="Explosive_D" class="mw-redirect" title="Explosive D">explosive D</a>) was used by the United States beginning in 1906.<sup id="cite_ref-brown_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-brown-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Germany began filling artillery shells with <a href="Trinitrotoluene" class="mw-redirect" title="Trinitrotoluene">TNT</a> in 1902. <a href="Toluene" title="Toluene">Toluene</a> was less readily available than phenol, and TNT is less powerful than picric acid, but the improved safety of munitions manufacturing and storage caused the replacement of picric acid by TNT for most military purposes between the World Wars.<sup id="cite_ref-brown_27-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-brown-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, pure TNT was expensive to produce and most nations made some use of mixtures using cruder TNT and ammonium nitrate, some with other compounds included. These fills included Ammonal, Schneiderite and <a href="Amatol" title="Amatol">Amatol</a>. The latter was still in wide use in <a href="World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a>.

</p><p>The percentage of shell weight taken up by its explosive fill increased steadily throughout the 20th Century. Less than 10% was usual in the first few decades; by <a href="World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a>, leading designs were around 15%. However, British researchers in that war identified 25% as being the optimal design for <a href="Anti-personnel" class="mw-redirect" title="Anti-personnel">anti-personnel</a> purposes, based on the recognition that far smaller fragments than hitherto would give a better effect. This guideline was achieved by the 1960s with the 155 mm L15 shell, developed as part of the German-British <a href="FH-70" class="mw-redirect" title="FH-70">FH-70</a> program. The key requirement for increasing the HE content without increasing shell weight was to reduce the thickness of shell walls, which required improvements in high tensile steel.

</p>

<p>The most common shell type is <a href="High_explosive" class="mw-redirect" title="High explosive">high explosive</a>, commonly referred to simply as HE. They have a strong <a href="Steel" title="Steel">steel</a> case, a bursting charge, and a <a href="Artillery_fuse" class="mw-redirect" title="Artillery fuse">fuse</a>. The fuse detonates the bursting charge which shatters the case and scatters hot, sharp case pieces (<i>fragments</i>, <i>splinters</i>) at high velocity. Most of the damage to soft targets, such as unprotected personnel, is caused by shell pieces rather than by the blast. The term "shrapnel" is sometimes used to describe the shell pieces, but <a href="Shrapnel_shell" title="Shrapnel shell">shrapnel shells</a> functioned very differently and are long obsolete. The speed of fragments is limited by <a href="Gurney_equations" title="Gurney equations">Gurney equations</a>. Depending on the type of <a href="Artillery_fuse" class="mw-redirect" title="Artillery fuse">fuse</a> used the HE shell can be set to burst on the ground (percussion), in the air above the ground, which is called air burst<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> (time or <a href="Proximity_fuze" title="Proximity fuze">proximity</a>), or after penetrating a short distance into the ground (percussion with delay, either to transmit more ground shock to covered positions, or to reduce the spread of fragments). Projectiles with enhanced fragmentation are called high-explosive fragmentation (HE-FRAG).<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p><a href="RDX" title="RDX">RDX</a> and TNT mixtures are the standard chemicals used, notably <a href="Composition_B" title="Composition B">Composition B</a> and <a href="Cyclotol" title="Cyclotol">Cyclotol</a>. The introduction of "insensitive munition" requirements, agreements and regulations in the 1990s caused modern western designs to use various types of plastic bonded explosives (PBX) based on RDX.

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Common">Common</h4></div>

<p><a href="Glossary_of_British_ordnance_terms#Common_shell" title="Glossary of British ordnance terms">Common shells</a> designated in the early (i.e. 1800s) British explosive shells were filled with "low explosives" such as "P mixture" (gunpowder) and usually with a fuze in the nose. Common shells on bursting (non-detonating) tended to break into relatively large fragments which continued along the shell's trajectory rather than laterally. They had some incendiary effect.

</p><p>In the late 19th century "double common shells" were developed, lengthened so as to approach twice the standard shell weight, to carry more powder and hence increase explosive effect. They suffered from instability in flight and low velocity and were not widely used.

</p><p>In 1914, common shells with a diameter of 6-inches and larger were of cast steel, while smaller diameter shells were of forged steel for service and cast iron for practice.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTETreatise_on_Ammunition1915158,_159,_198_31-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETreatise_on_Ammunition1915158,_159,_198-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They were replaced by "common lyddite" shells in the late 1890s but some stocks remained as late as 1914. In British service common shells were typically painted black with a red band behind the nose to indicate the shell was filled.

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Common_pointed">Common pointed</h4></div>

<p><a href="Glossary_of_British_ordnance_terms#CP" title="Glossary of British ordnance terms">Common pointed shells</a>, or CP were a type of common shell used in naval service from the 1890s – 1910s which had a solid nose and a percussion fuze in the base rather than the common shell's nose fuze. The ogival two C.R.H. solid pointed nose was considered suitable for attacking shipping but was not armour-piercing – the main function was still explosive. They were of cast or forged (three- and six-pounder) steel and contained a gunpowder bursting charge slightly smaller than that of a common shell, a trade off for the longer heavier nose.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTETreatise_on_Ammunition1915161_32-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETreatise_on_Ammunition1915161-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>In British service common pointed shells were typically painted black, except 12-pounder shells specific for QF guns which were painted lead colour to distinguish them from 12-pounder shells usable with both BL and QF guns. A red ring behind the nose indicated the shell was filled.

</p><p>By World War II they were superseded in Royal Navy service by common pointed capped (CPC) and semi-armour piercing (<a href="#S.A.P.">SAP</a>), filled with TNT.

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Common_lyddite">Common lyddite</h4></div>

<p><a href="Glossary_of_British_ordnance_terms#Common_lyddite" title="Glossary of British ordnance terms">Common lyddite shells</a> were British explosive shells filled with <a href="Lyddite" class="mw-redirect" title="Lyddite">Lyddite</a> were initially designated "common lyddite" and beginning in 1896 were the first British generation of modern "high explosive" shells. Lyddite is <a href="Picric_acid" title="Picric acid">picric acid</a> fused at 280 °F (138 °C) and allowed to solidify, producing a much denser dark-yellow form which is not affected by moisture and is easier to detonate than the liquid form. Its French equivalent was "melinite", Japanese equivalent was "shimose". Common lyddite shells "detonated" and fragmented into small pieces in all directions, with no incendiary effect. For maximum destructive effect the explosion needed to be delayed until the shell had penetrated its target.

</p><p>Early shells had walls of the same thickness for the whole length, later shells had walls thicker at the base and thinning towards the nose. This was found to give greater strength and provide more space for explosive.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTETreatise_on_Ammunition191537,_158,_159,_198_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETreatise_on_Ammunition191537,_158,_159,_198-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Later shells had <a href="#C.R.H.">4 c.r. heads</a>, more pointed and hence streamlined than earlier 2 c.r.h. designs.

</p><p>Proper detonation of a lyddite shell would show black to grey smoke, or white from the steam of a water detonation. Yellow smoke indicated simple explosion rather than detonation, and failure to reliably detonate was a problem with lyddite, especially in its earlier usage. To improve the detonation "exploders" with a small quantity of picric powder or even of TNT (in smaller shells, 3 pdr, 12 pdr – 4.7 inch) was loaded between the fuze and the main lyddite filling or in a thin tube running through most of the shell's length.

</p><p>Lyddite presented a major safety problem because it reacted dangerously with metal bases. This required that the interior of shells had to be varnished, the exterior had to be painted with leadless paint and the fuze-hole had to be made of a leadless alloy. Fuzes containing any lead could not be used with it.

</p><p>When World War I began Britain was replacing lyddite with modern "high explosive" (HE) such as TNT. After World War I the term "common lyddite" was dropped, and remaining stocks of lyddite-filled shells were referred to as HE (high explosive) shell filled lyddite. Hence "common" faded from use, replaced by "HE" as the explosive shell designation.

</p><p>Common lyddite shells in British service were painted yellow, with a red ring behind the nose to indicate the shell had been filled.

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Mine_shell">Mine shell</h4></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="Mine_shell" title="Mine shell">Mine shell</a></div>

<p>The mine shell is a particular form of HE shell developed for use in small caliber weapons such as 20 mm to 30 mm cannon. Small HE shells of conventional design can contain only a limited amount of explosive. By using a thin-walled steel casing of high tensile strength, a larger explosive charge can be used. Most commonly the explosive charge also was a more expensive but higher-detonation-energy type.

</p><p>The <i>mine shell</i> concept was invented by the Germans in the Second World War primarily for use in aircraft guns intended to be fired at opposing aircraft. Mine shells produced relatively little damage due to fragments, but a much more powerful blast. The <a href="Aluminium" title="Aluminium">aluminium</a> structures and skins of Second World War <a href="Aircraft" title="Aircraft">aircraft</a> were readily damaged by this greater level of blast.

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Shrapnel_shells">Shrapnel shells</h3></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="Shrapnel_shell" title="Shrapnel shell">Shrapnel shell</a></div>

<p><a href="Shrapnel_shell" title="Shrapnel shell">Shrapnel shells</a> are an anti-personnel munition which delivered large numbers of <a href="Bullet" title="Bullet">bullets</a> at ranges far greater than rifles or machine guns could attain – up to 6,500 yards by 1914. A typical shrapnel shell as used in World War I was streamlined, 75 mm (3 in) in diameter and contained approximately 300 lead–antimony balls (bullets), each around 1/2-inch in diameter. Shrapnel used the principle that the bullets encountered much less air resistance if they travelled most of their journey packed together in a single streamlined shell than they would if they travelled individually, and could hence attain a far greater range.

</p><p>The gunner set the shell's <a href="Artillery_fuze#Time_fuzes" title="Artillery fuze">time fuze</a> so that it was timed to burst as it was angling down towards the ground just before it reached its target (ideally about 150 yards before, and 60–100 feet above the ground<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>). The fuze then ignited a small "bursting charge" in the base of the shell which fired the balls forward out of the front of the shell case, adding 200–250 ft/second to the existing velocity of 750–1200 ft/second. The shell body dropped to the ground mostly intact and the bullets continued in an expanding cone shape before striking the ground over an area approximately 250 yards × 30 yards in the case of the US 3-inch shell.<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The effect was of a large shotgun blast just in front of and above the target, and was deadly against troops in the open. A trained gun team could fire 20 such shells per minute, with a total of 6,000 balls, which compared very favorably with rifles and machine-guns.

</p><p>However, shrapnel's relatively flat trajectory (it depended mainly on the shell's velocity for its lethality, and was lethal only in the forward direction) meant that it could not strike trained troops who avoided open spaces and instead used dead ground (dips), shelters, trenches, buildings, and trees for cover. It was of no use in destroying buildings or shelters. Hence, it was replaced during World War I by the high-explosive shell, which exploded its fragments in all directions (and thus more difficult to avoid) and could be fired by high-angle weapons, such as howitzers.

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Cluster_and_sub-munition">Cluster and sub-munition</h3></div>

<p>Cluster shells are a type of carrier shell or cargo munition. Like <a href="Cluster_bomb" class="mw-redirect" title="Cluster bomb">cluster bombs</a>, an artillery shell may be used to scatter smaller sub-munitions, including anti-personnel <a href="Grenade" title="Grenade">grenades</a>, anti-tank top-attack munitions, and <a href="Land_mine" title="Land mine">landmines</a>. These are generally far more lethal against both <a href="Armored_fighting_vehicle" class="mw-redirect" title="Armored fighting vehicle">armour</a> and <a href="Infantry" title="Infantry">infantry</a> than simple high-explosive shells, since the multiple munitions create a larger kill zone and increase the chance of achieving the direct hit necessary to kill armour. Many modern armies make significant use of <a href="Cluster_munition" title="Cluster munition">cluster munitions</a> in their artillery batteries.

</p><p>Artillery-scattered mines allow for the quick deployment of <a href="Minefield" class="mw-redirect" title="Minefield">minefields</a> into the path of the enemy without placing engineering units at risk, but artillery delivery may lead to an irregular and unpredictable minefield with more unexploded ordnance than if mines were individually placed.

</p><p>Signatories of the <a href="Convention_on_Cluster_Munitions" title="Convention on Cluster Munitions">Convention on Cluster Munitions</a> have accepted restrictions on the use of cluster munitions, including artillery shells: the treaty requires that a weapon so defined must contain nine or fewer submunitions, which must each weigh more than 4 kilograms, be capable of detecting and engaging a single target, and contain electronic self-destruct and self-deactivation systems. Submunitions which weigh 20 kg or more are not restricted.

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Chemical">Chemical</h3></div>

<p>Chemical shells contain just a small explosive charge to burst the shell, and a larger quantity of a <a href="Chemical_weapon" title="Chemical weapon">chemical agent</a> or <a href="Riot_control_agent" class="mw-redirect" title="Riot control agent">riot control agent</a> of some kind, in either liquid, gas or powdered form. In some cases such as the <a href="M687" class="mw-redirect" title="M687">M687</a> Sarin gas shell, the payload is stored as two precursor chemicals which are mixed after the shell is fired. Some examples designed to deliver powdered chemical agents, such as the <a href="M110_155mm_Cartridge" class="mw-redirect" title="M110 155mm Cartridge">M110 155mm Cartridge</a>, were later repurposed as smoke/incendiary rounds containing powdered <a href="White_phosphorus" title="White phosphorus">white phosphorus</a>.

</p><p>Chemical shells were most commonly employed during the <a href="First_World_War" class="mw-redirect" title="First World War">First World War</a>. Use of chemical agents of all kinds has been forbidden by numerous international treaties starting with the 1925 <a href="Geneva_Protocol" title="Geneva Protocol">Geneva Protocol</a> (not to be confused with the <a href="Geneva_Convention" class="mw-redirect" title="Geneva Convention">Geneva Convention</a>), with the 1993 <a href="Chemical_Weapons_Convention" title="Chemical Weapons Convention">Chemical Weapons Convention</a> being the most modern treaty which also outlaws production, stockpiling and transfer of such weapons. All signatories have renounced the use of both lethal chemical agents and incapacitating agents in warfare.

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Nuclear_artillery">Nuclear artillery</h3></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="Nuclear_artillery" title="Nuclear artillery">Nuclear artillery</a></div>

<p>Nuclear artillery shells are used to provide battlefield scale nuclear weapons for tactical use. These range from the relatively small 155 mm shell to the 406 mm shell used by heavy battleship cannon and shore defense units equipped with the same guns.

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Non-lethal_shells">Non-lethal shells</h3></div>

<p>Not all shells are designed to kill or destroy. The following types are designed to achieve particular non-lethal effects. They are not completely harmless: smoke and illumination shells can accidentally start fires, and impact by the discarded carrier of all three types can wound or kill personnel, or cause minor damage to property.

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Smoke">Smoke</h4></div>

<p>Smoke shells are used to create <a href="Smoke_screen" title="Smoke screen">smoke screens</a> to mask movements of friendly forces or disorient enemies, or to mark specific areas. The main types are bursting (using a payload powdered chemicals) and base ejection (delivering three or four smoke canisters which are deployed from the rear of the shell prior to impact, or a single canister containing submunitions distributed via a bursting charge). Base ejection shells are a type of carrier shell or cargo munition.

</p><p>Base ejection smoke is usually white, however, colored smoke has been used for marking purposes. The original canisters typically used <a href="Hexachloroethane" title="Hexachloroethane">hexachloroethane</a>-<a href="Zinc" title="Zinc">zinc</a> (HC), modern ones use <a href="Allotropes_of_phosphorus#Red_phosphorus" title="Allotropes of phosphorus">red phosphorus</a> because of its multi-spectral properties. However, other compounds have been used; in World War II, Germany used <a href="Oleum#Explosives_manufacture" title="Oleum">oleum</a> (fuming <a href="Sulfuric_acid" title="Sulfuric acid">sulfuric acid</a>) and <a href="Pumice" title="Pumice">pumice</a>.

</p><p>Due to the nature of their payload, powder smoke shells using <a href="White_phosphorus" title="White phosphorus">white phosphorus</a> in particular have a secondary effect as <a href="Incendiary_device" title="Incendiary device">incendiary</a> weapons, though they are not as effective in this role as dedicated weapons using <a href="Thermite" title="Thermite">thermite</a>.

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Illumination">Illumination</h4></div>

<p>Modern illuminating shells are a type of carrier shell or cargo munition. Those used in World War I were shrapnel pattern shells ejecting small burning "pots".

</p><p>A modern illumination shell has a time fuze that ejects a flare "package" through the base of the carrier shell at a standard height above ground (typically about 600 metres), from where it slowly falls beneath a non-flammable <a href="Parachute" title="Parachute">parachute</a>, illuminating the area below. The ejection process also initiates a <a href="Pyrotechnics" title="Pyrotechnics">pyrotechnic</a> flare emitting white or "black" <a href="Infrared" title="Infrared">infrared</a> light.

</p>

<p>Typically illumination flares burn for about 60 seconds. These are also known as <i>star shells</i>. Infrared illumination is a more recent development used to enhance the performance of night-vision devices. Both white- and black-light illuminating shells may be used to provide continuous illumination over an area for a period of time and may use several dispersed aimpoints to illuminate a large area. Alternatively, firing single illuminating shells may be coordinated with the adjustment of HE shell fire onto a target.

</p><p>Colored flare shells have also been used for target marking and other signaling purposes.

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Carrier">Carrier</h4></div>

<p>The carrier shell is simply a hollow carrier equipped with a fuze that ejects the contents at a calculated time. They are often filled with <a href="Airborne_leaflet_propaganda" title="Airborne leaflet propaganda">leaflets</a> (see external links), but can be filled with anything that meets the weight restrictions and is able to withstand the shock of firing. Famously, on Christmas Day 1899 during the <a href="Siege_of_Ladysmith" title="Siege of Ladysmith">siege of Ladysmith</a>, the <a href="Afrikaner" class="mw-redirect" title="Afrikaner">Boers</a> fired into Ladysmith a carrier shell without a fuze, which contained a <a href="Christmas_pudding" title="Christmas pudding">Christmas pudding</a>, two <a href="Union_Flag" class="mw-redirect" title="Union Flag">Union Flags</a> and the message "compliments of the season". The shell is still kept in the museum at Ladysmith.

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Proof_shot">Proof shot</h4></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="Proof_test" title="Proof test">Proof test</a></div>

<p>A <a href="Proof_shot" class="mw-redirect" title="Proof shot">proof shot</a> is not used in combat but to confirm that a new gun barrel can withstand operational stresses. The proof shot is heavier than a normal shot or shell, and an oversize propelling charge is used, subjecting the barrel to greater than normal stress. The proof shot is inert (no explosive or functioning filling) and is often a solid unit, although water, sand or iron powder filled versions may be used for testing the gun mounting. Although the proof shot resembles a functioning shell (of whatever sort), so that it behaves as a real shell in the barrel, it is not aerodynamic as its job is over once it has left the muzzle of the gun. Consequently, it travels a much shorter distance and is usually stopped by an earth bank, for safety.

</p><p>The gun, operated remotely for safety in case it fails, fires the proof shot, and is then inspected for damage. If the barrel passes the examination, "<a href="Proof_mark" class="mw-redirect" title="Proof mark">proof marks</a>" are added to the barrel. The gun can be expected to handle normal ammunition, which subjects it to less stress than the proof shot, without being damaged.

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Guided_shells">Guided shells</h3></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="Cannon-launched_guided_projectile" title="Cannon-launched guided projectile">Cannon-launched guided projectile</a> and <a href="Precision-guided_munition" title="Precision-guided munition">Precision-guided munition</a></div>

<p>Guided or "smart" ammunition features some method of guiding itself post-launch, usually through the addition of steering fins that alter its trajectory in an unpowered glide. Due to their much higher cost, they have yet to supplant unguided munitions in all applications.

</p>

<div class="gallerytext"><a href="M982_Excalibur" title="M982 Excalibur">M982 Excalibur</a>, a GPS guided artillery shell</div>

</li>

<div class="gallerytext"><a href="M712_Copperhead" title="M712 Copperhead">M712 Copperhead</a>, a laser guided artillery shell, approaches a target tank</div>

</li>

<div class="gallerytext"><a href="SMArt_155" title="SMArt 155">SMArt 155</a>, an anti-armour shell containing two autonomous, sensor-guided, <a href="Fire-and-forget" title="Fire-and-forget">fire-and-forget</a> submunitions</div>

</li>

<div class="gallerytext"><a href="M1156_precision_guidance_kit" title="M1156 precision guidance kit">M1156 precision guidance kit</a>, an add-on GPS guidance system for artillery shells</div>

</li>

<div class="gallerytext"><a href="Bofors/Nexter_Bonus" title="Bofors/Nexter Bonus">Bofors/Nexter Bonus</a>, with <a href="Infrared_sensor" class="mw-redirect" title="Infrared sensor">infrared</a> and <a href="Lidar" title="Lidar">LiDAR</a> guided submunitions</div>

</li>

</ul>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Unexploded_shells">Unexploded shells</h2></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="Unexploded_ordnance" title="Unexploded ordnance">Unexploded ordnance</a></div>

<p>The <a href="Artillery_fuze" title="Artillery fuze">fuze</a> of a shell has to keep the shell safe from accidental functioning during storage, due to (possibly) rough handling, fire, etc. It also has to survive the violent launch through the barrel, then reliably function at the appropriate moment. To do this it has a number of arming mechanisms which are successively enabled under the influence of the firing sequence.<sup id="cite_ref-uxo-definition_36-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-uxo-definition-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<p>Sometimes, one or more of these arming mechanisms fail, resulting in a projectile that is unable to detonate. More worrying (and potentially far more hazardous) are fully armed shells on which the fuze fails to initiate the HE firing. This may be due to a shallow trajectory of fire, low-velocity firing or soft impact conditions. Whatever the reason for failure, such a shell is called a <i>blind</i> or <i>unexploded ordnance (<a href="UXO" class="mw-redirect" title="UXO">UXO</a>)</i> (the older term, "dud", is discouraged because it implies that the shell <i>cannot</i> detonate.) Blind shells often litter old battlefields; depending on the impact velocity, they may be buried some distance into the earth, all the while remaining potentially hazardous. For example, antitank ammunition with a piezoelectric fuze can be detonated by relatively light impact to the piezoelectric element, and others, depending on the type of fuze used, can be detonated by even a small movement. The battlefields of the First World War still claim casualties today from leftover munitions. Modern electrical and mechanical fuzes are highly reliable: if they do not arm correctly, they keep the initiation train out of line or (if electrical in nature) discharge any stored electrical energy.<sup id="cite_ref-iron-harvest_37-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-iron-harvest-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2></div>

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.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("./mw/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("./mw/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("./mw/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("./mw/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}

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</style><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?search=grenade&searchmode=none">"Etymology of grenade"</a>. Etymonline.com. 8 January 1972<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">27 February</span> 2013</span>.</cite></span>

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<li id="cite_note-needham_volume_5_part_7_24_25_264-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-needham_volume_5_part_7_24_25_264_2-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-needham_volume_5_part_7_24_25_264_2-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Needham, Joseph. (1986). Science and Civilization in China: Volume 5, Chemistry and Chemical Technology, Part 7, Military Technology; the Gunpowder Epic. Taipei: Caves Books Ltd. Pages 24–25, 264.</span>

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<li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFDelgado2003" class="citation journal cs1">Delgado, James (February 2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://archive.archaeology.org/0301/etc/kamikaze.html">"Relics of the Kamikaze"</a>. <i>Archaeology</i>. <b>56</b> (1). Archaeological Institute of America. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20131229155139/http://archive.archaeology.org/0301/etc/kamikaze.html">Archived</a> from the original on 29 December 2013.</cite></span>

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<li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFFranzkowiakWenzel2018" class="citation journal cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Franzkowiak, Andreas; Wenzel, Chris (2018). "Keramikgranaten aus Ingolstadt - Ein außergewöhnlicher Fund". <i>Waffen- und Kostümkunde - Zeitschrift für Waffen- und Kleidungsgeschichte</i> (in German). <b>60</b> (1): <span class="nowrap">65–</span>80. <a href="ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0042-9945">0042-9945</a>.</cite></span>

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<li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFBastable1992" class="citation journal cs1">Bastable, Marshall J. (1992). "From Breechloaders to Monster Guns: Sir William Armstrong and the Invention of Modern Artillery, 1854–1880". <i>Technology and Culture</i>. <b>33</b> (2): <span class="nowrap">213–</span>247. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F3105857">10.2307/3105857</a>. <a href="JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/3105857">3105857</a>. <a href="S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:112105821">112105821</a>.</cite></span>

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<li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.gracesguide.co.uk/William_Armstrong">"William George Armstrong - Graces Guide"</a>. <i>www.gracesguide.co.uk</i>.</cite></span>

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<li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/19990819063641/http://www.au.af.mil/au/awc/awcgate/gabrmetz/gabr001b.htm">"The Emergence of Modern War"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.au.af.mil/au/awc/awcgate/gabrmetz/gabr001b.htm">the original</a> on 19 August 1999.</cite></span>

</li>

</li>

</li>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-Handloading28-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Handloading28_14-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Davis, William C., Jr. <i>Handloading</i>. National Rifle Association of America (1981). p. 28.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-sharpe141-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-sharpe141_15-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-sharpe141_15-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Sharpe, Philip B. <i>Complete Guide to Handloading</i>. 3rd edition (1953). Funk & Wagnalls. pp. 141–144.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-Chemistry289-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Chemistry289_16-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Davis, Tenney L. <i>The Chemistry of Powder & Explosives</i> (1943), pages 289–292.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-Artillery139-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Artillery139_17-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hogg, Oliver F. G. <i>Artillery: Its Origin, Heyday and Decline</i> (1969), p. 139.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-Artillery141-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Artillery141_18-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hogg, Oliver F. G. <i>Artillery: Its Origin, Heyday and Decline</i> (1969), p. 141.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="Nicolas_%C3%89douard_Delabarre-Duparcq" title="Nicolas Édouard Delabarre-Duparcq">Nicolas Édouard Delabarre-Duparcq</a> and <a href="George_Washington_Cullum" title="George Washington Cullum">George Washington Cullum</a>. <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/elementsofmilita00labarich">Elements of Military Art and History</a></i>. 1863. p. 142.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-Jobson2016-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Jobson2016_20-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFPhilip_Jobson2016" class="citation book cs1">Philip Jobson (2 September 2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=hmX0DAAAQBAJ&pg=PT346"><i>Royal Artillery Glossary of Terms and Abbreviations: Historical and Modern</i></a>. History Press. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0-7509-8007-4</bdi>.</cite></span>

</li>

</li>

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<li id="cite_note-:Hogg-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:Hogg_23-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:Hogg_23-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:Hogg_23-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFHoggBatchelor1972" class="citation book cs1">Hogg, Ian; Batchelor, John H. (1972). <i>Artillery</i>. New York: Scribner. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>0684130920</bdi>. <a href="OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/571972">571972</a>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFVandenbosch" class="citation web cs1">Vandenbosch. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://armyrecognition.com/focus-analysis-conflicts/army/conflicts-in-the-world/russia-ukraine-war-2022/ukraine-faces-ammunition-shortage-for-its-2s7-pion-self-propelled-howitzers">"Ukraine Faces Ammunition Shortage for Its 2S7 Pion Self-Propelled Howitzers"</a>. <i>armyrecognition.com</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">9 March</span> 2025</span>.</cite></span>

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<li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080320054041/http://members.lycos.co.uk/Juan39/THE_HUASCAR.html">"Build a Free Website with Web Hosting – Tripod"</a>. <i>members.lycos.co.uk</i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://members.lycos.co.uk/Juan39/THE_HUASCAR.html">the original</a> on 20 March 2008<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">15 June</span> 2014</span>.</cite></span>

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<li id="cite_note-ToA1887-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-ToA1887_26-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"<a href="Treatise_on_Ammunition" title="Treatise on Ammunition">Treatise on Ammunition</a>", 4th Edition 1887, pp. 203–205.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-brown-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-brown_27-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-brown_27-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Brown, G. I. (1998) <i>The Big Bang: a History of Explosives</i>. Sutton Publishing. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>0-7509-1878-0</bdi>. pp. 151–163.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Marc Ferro. <i>The Great War</i>. London and New York: Routeladge Classics, p. 98.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFMarc_GarlascoFred_AbrahamsBill_van_EsveldFares_Akram2009" class="citation book cs1">Marc Garlasco; Fred Abrahams; Bill van Esveld; Fares Akram; Darryl Li (2009). Joe Stock; James Ross; Iain Levine (eds.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=nBXSdMCUuBIC&pg=PA3"><i>Rain of Fire: Israel's Unlawful Use of White Phosphorus in Gaza</i></a>. Human Rights Watch. p. 3. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-1-56432-458-0</bdi>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.forecastinternational.com/archive/disp_pdf.cfm?DACH_RECNO=818">"Ordnance & Munitions Forecast"</a>. <i>www.forecastinternational.com</i>. 2010.</cite></span>

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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETreatise_on_Ammunition1915158,_159,_198-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETreatise_on_Ammunition1915158,_159,_198_31-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFTreatise_on_Ammunition1915">Treatise on Ammunition (1915)</a>, pp. 158, 159, 198.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETreatise_on_Ammunition1915161-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETreatise_on_Ammunition1915161_32-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFTreatise_on_Ammunition1915">Treatise on Ammunition (1915)</a>, p. 161.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETreatise_on_Ammunition191537,_158,_159,_198-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETreatise_on_Ammunition191537,_158,_159,_198_33-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFTreatise_on_Ammunition1915">Treatise on Ammunition (1915)</a>, pp. 37, 158, 159, 198.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">I.V. Hogg & L.F. Thurston, <i>British Artillery Weapons & Ammunition</i>. London: Ian Allan, 1972. Page 215.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hamilton 1915, p. 13.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-uxo-definition-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-uxo-definition_36-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.denix.osd.mil/uxo/explosives-safety/">"Unexploded Ordnance (UXO)"</a>. <i>U.S. Department of Defense Explosives Safety Education Program</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">24 July</span> 2025</span>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-iron-harvest-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-iron-harvest_37-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.reuters.com/article/world/a-century-on-from-ww1-100-years-of-work-remains-to-clear-munitions-idUSKCN1N40TQ/">"Iron harvest: Unexploded munitions from WWI still being ploughed up in France and Belgium"</a>. <i>Reuters</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">24 July</span> 2025</span>.</cite></span>

</li>

</ol></div></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sources">Sources</h3></div>

<ul><li>Hamilton, Douglas T. (1915). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/shrapnelshellman00hamirich">"Shrapnel Shell Manufacture: A Comprehensive Treatise"</a>. New York: Industrial Press.</li>

<li>Hamilton, Douglas T. (1916). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/highexplosiveshe00hamirich">"High-explosive Shell Manufacture: A Comprehensive Treatise"</a>. New York: Industrial Press.</li>

<li>Hogg, O. F. G. (1970). "Artillery: Its Origin, Heyday and Decline". London: C. Hurst and Company.</li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFTreatise_on_Ammunition1915" class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/TreatiseOnAmmunition1915"><i>Treatise On Ammunition</i></a> (10th ed.). War Office. 1915.</cite></li></ul>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2></div>

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<div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <span style="font-weight: bold; font-style: italic;"><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Artillery_ammunition" class="extiw external" title="commons:Category:Artillery ammunition">Artillery ammunition</a></span>.</div></div>

</div>

<ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=St8DAAAAMBAJ">"What Happens When a Shell Bursts," <i>Popular Mechanics</i>, April 1906, p. 408</a> – with photograph of exploded shell reassembled</li>

<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070930184557/http://members.home.nl/ww2propaganda/spread5.htm">World War II propaganda leaflets</a> at the <a href="Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> (archived 30 September 2007): A website about airdropped, shelled or rocket fired propaganda leaflets. Example artillery shells for spreading propaganda.</li>

<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://napoleonistyka.atspace.com/artillery_tactics.htm">Artillery Tactics and Combat during the Napoleonic Wars</a></li>

<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ScZuCDYSM2g">How does the ammunition of a towed artillery work?</a> – video explanation</li></ul>

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